Designing a System for 1M Concurrent Users

I need to design a system that handles 1 million concurrent users. What are the key things I need to think about?

This is where architecture gets really interesting! Let's design this systematically: PHASE 1: Understand the load. 1M concurrent users does not equal 1M requests per second. Active users might make 1-10 requests per minute each. But spikes, rush hour, and flash events matter. Assumptions: Average 10 requests per minute per user. Peak 100 requests per minute per user (10x). Peak load equals 100M requests per minute equals 1.6M requests per second. PHASE 2: Architecture layers. User goes to CDN (static content), goes to Load Balancer (L7 LB), goes to API Servers (auto-scale), goes to Cache (Redis), goes to DB (sharded). PHASE 3: Key design decisions. DATABASE DESIGN: Sharding (split data across servers), Read replicas (scale reads independently), Connection pooling (don't exhaust connections). CACHING STRATEGY: CDN for static content, Application cache (Redis) for hot data, Database cache (built-in query cache). RATE LIMITING: Per-IP limits (prevent abuse), Per-user limits (fairness), Token bucket algorithm (smooth limiting). Want me to design any specific component in detail?

Yes! How do I design the database sharding? What should I shard by?

Sharding is both art and science! Let's design it properly: SHARDING STRATEGIES: 1. HASH-BASED SHARDING (recommended): Use consistent hashing. User ID gets hashed, then modulo by number of shards. Why this is good: Even distribution, Deterministic (same user always goes to same shard), Easy to add more shards. 2. RANGE-BASED SHARDING: User IDs 1-1000000 go to Shard 1, 1000001-2000000 go to Shard 2. Tradeoffs: Easy range queries, but Hotspots (new users go to same shard), Hard to rebalance. 3. GEOGRAPHICAL SHARDING: Route to closest data center. US users go to US shards, EU users go to EU shards. RECOMMENDED SETUP: Shard 0: US-West (users 0-2499999) Shard 1: US-East (users 2500000-4999999) Shard 2: EU-West (users 5000000-7499999) Shard 3: EU-Central (users 7500000-9999999) Critical: Shard by user_id, not by session or request. Want me to design the cross-shard query strategy?